OSCE's new Vision under the chairmanship of Kazakhstan Article

OSCE's new Vision under the chairmanship of Kazakhstan - Article Example The organization is a primary instrument for warning, conflict prevention, crisis management and post conflict rehabilitation dealing with three dimensions of security – the politico – military, the economic and environmental and the human dimension, which are also referred to as three baskets on OSCE which addresses the wide range of security related concerns, including arms control, confidence – and – security building measures, human rights, national minorities, democratization, policing, strategies, counter – terrorism, and economic and environmental activities. Politico – military aims at formulating mechanisms for conflict prevention and resolution while seeking to enhance military security by promoting greater openness, transparency and cooperation. The economic and environmental dimension includes the monitoring of developments among participating states while alerting them of any threat of conflict and assisting the creation of econo mic and environmental policies and related initiatives to promote security in OSCE region. The human dimension aims at ensuring full respect to human rights and fundamental freedoms; to abide by the rule of law, to promote the principles of democracy by building, strengthening and protecting democratic institutions, and to promote tolerance throughout the OSCE area (www.osce.org). McKenzie and Rupp (1998, 119) stated that OSCE reflects the challenges facing multilateral cooperation in new and volatile era. The members of OSCE have committed themselves to promote security operation. Freire mentioned that post 9/11, most of the countries were concerned about the terrorism issues and OSCE was no exception in focusing on the need to respond to terrorism as a source of instability and an obstacle to the spread of democratization and rule of law principles (190). According to Cordell (1999, 62) the organization was the only international forum that

Paragraphing in Academic Writing Essay Example for Free

Paragraphing in Academic Writing Essay Although it often seems that paragraphs can take an infinite number of forms, there are really only a few formats for paragraphing in formal, academic prose. What makes paragraphs seem unique to the reader is the style of the writers prose, not the actual format of the information. There are four main types of paragraphs in academic prose: the standard paragraph, the explanatory paragraph, the evidential paragraph, and the introductory paragraph (whose format is sometimes mirrored in the conclusion). Note that the rules and formats described here apply to formal, academic prose, as opposed to paragraphing in newspapers, business, or electronic discourse. Each kind of writing has its own conventions, that is, rules and rhetorical strategies unique to a particular form of composition. In poetry, for example, line breaks contribute to the poems rhythm and overall message and mark the poem as a poem, not as another kind of writing. Conventions in paragraphing can vary from one kind of writing to another as well. In newspaper writing, paragraphs are one to three sentences because the narrow columns used in newspapers make even the shortest paragraph seem long. In electronic discourse, shorter paragraphs and more listing is used because it is more pleasing to the eyetaking advantage of the internets more visual features. A. Standard Paragraph Format Standard paragraphs are the most frequently used paragraph format and most of your essay paragraphs should follow this format. Standard paragraphs contain the following elements in order: 1. Most begin with a topic sentence that makes the main point to be discussed, analyzed, or argued within that paragraph. On very rare occasions, the paragraph may begin with a transition from the last paragraph, followed by the topic sentence for the new paragraph. Paragraphs do not begin with quotations or other kinds of evidence. Evidence must be introduced after the point of the paragraph is made and explained. 2. Following the topic sentence, there is an explanation and/or further development of the point proposed in the topic sentence that clarifies and expands on this point. This explanation adds to the readers understanding of the point. 3. Following the explanation or development of the point, the writer introduces evidence. Introducing evidence includes informing the reader who the information comes from and where (i.e. author and article or book title or foundation, etc.). Such an introduction is an important part of source documentation and helps the reader understand where the evidence portion of the paragraph begins and how the evidence is being used. It is literally a signal to the reader that you have stopped talking and your source has started talking. 4. Once introduced, you provide the actual proof or evidence. This may come in the form of supporting evidence like statistics or quotations or other kinds of softer evidence like anecdotes or eye-witness accounts. Evidence is presented primarily as a paraphrase or summary, with only an occasional pithy, apt quote. It is limited to a few lines, so that the primary focus of the paragraph is on the writers point. Evidence must also be cited properly once given, using parenthetical documentation. (See your textbook for more information on citation.) This parenthetical documentation provides additional, helpful information that pinpoints even more accurately where the evidence can be found and signals the reader that you are going to resume speaking on the topic. 5. After providing proof, you must always explain the meaning of the evidence and tie its meaning to the point you are making so that the reader understands it the way you understand it. Never let evidence stand on its own merit; it must be interpreted for the reader, in light of the point being made, so that the reader understands the meaning and relevance of it. Otherwise, the reader may see the evidence in a different light or be completely lost as to its significance. Thus, evidence must always be explained, even if it seems self-evident to you. Working out the explanation of the evidence is also a helpful check on your own insights. If you cant explain your evidence in light of your point, then it probably doesnt support the point you are making. 6. The paragraph closes with either a summation of the main point or some kind of transition to the next point. This reminds the reader of the argument in progress, its essential points, and the connection between points. B. Explanatory Paragraphs Explanatory paragraphs are used to allow the writer to expand on and explain particularly complex points before providing the reader with a lot of examples or evidence. In particular fields, like the sciences or philosophy, such paragraphs are common in writings that attempt to explain or analyze difficult ideas, theories, or concepts. An explanatory paragraph can also be used to summarize someone elses ideas or concepts that you plan to utilize in your own paper. Essay conclusions are often a kind of explanatory paragraphs because they summarize and reiterate the main ideas discussed in the paper. Explanatory paragraphs contain the following elements in order: 1. Begin with a topic sentence or a transition. 2. Following the topic sentence, there is an in-depth explanation without corroborating evidence, although if the explanation is of someone elses ideas, you must cite this person. 3. The paragraph closes with either a summation. C. Evidential Paragraphs Evidential paragraphs are sometimes used to allow the writer to provide more evidence for a particular point made in a standard paragraph. These paragraphs act as an extension of the point made in the previous paragraph by supplementing the points with further, important evidence. In some fields, like in psychology where individual case studies are often used, there are occasions when there will be several evidential paragraphs for each sub point since the amount of evidence gathered is important to the proving of the point. Evidential paragraphs contain the following elements in order: 1. Begin with a topic sentence or a transition that reiterates the main point of the previous paragraph to remind the reader of the point under consideration. Paragraphs do not begin with quotations or other kinds of evidence. 2. Next, the writer introduces the next piece of evidence for the point as outlined for standard academic paragraphs above. 3. Then the writer provides the actual proof or evidence, followed by the necessary documentation as outlined above. 4. Next, writer must again explain the meaning of the evidence as outlined previously. [Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 as needed to provide additional, corroborating evidence. To avoid unwieldy paragraphs, keep in mind that a paragraph must have a sense of unity and that usually academic paragraphs run about 1/2 a double-spaced page in length. Therefore, put like evidence together in a paragraph, but use separate evidential paragraphs for items that defy categorization or if you have an overwhelming amount of evidence that you feel must be presented.] 5. The paragraph closes with either a summation of the point and, perhaps some kind of transition to the next point. D. Introductory Paragraphs All essays contain some kind of introductory paragraph or paragraphs. Often, this is where we feel that we can be the most creative in our writing because there are so many ways to begin an essay. Introductory paragraphs usually begin with a hook to draw the reader into the paper and, most often, end with the overall thesis of the paper. Sometimes the thesis includes a forecast of the papers major points. The hook might be a pithy quote, a brief anecdote, or hypothetical situation. Hooks can also be overviews of the problem or of current research on the subject. When using a hook, keep in mind that it should be handled like evidence; thus, it must be clearly introduced, documented, and explained. And, like evidence, it should be pithyshort and to the point. You dont want the reader getting lost in the hook and never get to the point of the paper. In short papers, of 900-1200 words, introductions are usually one paragraph in length. In longer papers, they may run two to three paragraphs. In books, they could run to a whole chapter. Stereotypically, the academic conclusion is merely a repeat of the essays main points and overall thesis. A truly innovative conclusion may repeat the essential point, but suggest other avenues to pursue with the topicsuggesting your awareness that you are only one voice in an on-going discussion of the topic. E. Standard Paragraph Checklist Use the following checklist to analyze the format of your papers paragraphs. If a particular paragraph does not fit the standard format, re-evaluate it: does it at least fit the format of an explanatory, evidential, or introductory paragraph and is its format consistent with the purpose of the paragraph?

Climate Of Lahore And Thermal Comfort Environmental Sciences Essay

Climate Of Lahore And Thermal Comfort Environmental Sciences Essay Chapter 2 2.1 Introduction Climate has great effect on building for its electricity consumption and building performance. Energy efficient design requires the consideration of the climate. The overall heating and cooling requirements in the buildings is controlled by climate during summer and winter season. As we have selected our site in Kala Shah Kaku, Punjab and kala shah kaku is located in Lahore region therefore the description of the climatic data of Lahore region is given below. 2.2 Climatic classification: Climate can be classified in terms building design in which the country will be divided into five zones in such a way that the difference of climate from zone to zone can be seen in the building design, gauranting some special provision for each zone. Based on these criteria, there are five major climatic zones, Hot-dry Hot-humid Cold Temperate Composite Types of climate Typical Characteristics Cold Excessive heat loss for most of the year Minimum Temperature: below -15  °C Temperate Excessive heat lost for part of year Inadequate heat loss for part of year Temperature changes: -30  °C to 30  °C Hot/Dry Overheating for most part of the year Dry air allow evaporation Temperature ranges: -10  °C to 45  °C High radiation Strong Winds Hot/Humid Overheating for most of year Humid air inhibits cooling Temperature often above 20 C Mean relative humidity around 80 % High rainfall in certain months Table 2.1 typical characteristics of different types of climates 2.3 Climatic zones of Pakistan: Pakistan has a wide range of climatic conditions. The Northern and North- Western parts of Pakistan are cooler, the centre of the Punjab is extremely hot and semi-arid, and the Baluchistan is cool and arid whereas the coastal strip is warm and humid. In cold regions, during the winter temperature drops well below the zero. In the desert regions, the maximum temperature remains above 40 °C during most of the summer period; with a peak often approaching 50 °C.The climatic regions have been divided based on various criteria. Fig 2.1 map of climatic zones of Pakistan 2.4 Climate of Lahore Region: Lahore lies 217 meters above sea level and it lies between 31 °15 and 31 °45 North latitude and 74 °1 and 74 °39 East longitude. On the North and West Lahore is bounded by Sheikhupura district, Wagah surrounds Lahore on east, and on the south of Lahore there is Kasur District. The river Ravi flows on the North of Lahore. Lahore city has a total land area of 404km2. The Lahore region comes under the normal composite zone, according to climatic zone map. It lies near the hot dry zone and in summer the wind direction is such that the wind blows northeast towards southwest of the city affecting the climate of Lahore region. The effect of hot dry zone starts from March and remains till September as the wind direction is southwest which means from hot dry zone towards Lahore region. The main features of this season are that the winds blown are hot and full of dust during the daytime but are cooler in night. Throughout the day very strong wind blows. The climate of Lahore region can be divided into the following broad categories: 2.4.1 Hot and dry: Hot and dry weather is found in the months of March and April. In these months the air is dry with the clear sky and no sea breeze to check the excessive heat as the Lahore region is located more than 1000 km from the nearest sea, the temperature rise is sharp. In the mid-March the maximum temperature reaches up to 90 F and till the middle of April temperatures reaches up to 100 F. Due to clear sky, nights are cooler having the average temperature of nearly 65 F (18  °C). The rainfall is very less in this duration. 2.4.2 Very hot and dry: In the months of May and June the weather of Lahore is very hot and dry and the heat is at its peak in these months. In the second week of May, the temperature reaches up to 110 F (43  °C).The heat is oppressive, humidity level is low with very hot and dry wind which is called loo in local language blowing most of the time. The month of June still remains hotter with the temperature sometimes reaching to 119 F (48  °C). However in June due to intense low pressure created by the extreme heat, sometimes some moisture from Arabian Sea finds its way to this region and causes rain which for the brings the temperature down temporarily. 2.4.3 Hot and wet: The months of July to September are rainy. Monson clouds travel from the Bay of Bengal and after traveling about 100 km over India reaches Pakistan and enter Lahore from the South- East. This rain system in these months called Monsoons. This is a regular characteristic of the Punjab, in this country. The weather is cool and pleasant when it rains, otherwise hot and humid. Although the temperature decreases significantly, from nearly 106 F ( 41  °C ) just before the monsoons starts in Lahore to about 95 F ( 35  °C ) but as the monsoon arrives there is the increase in the relative humidity which increases from less than 25% to more than 65%. The high temperature along with the excessive humidity makes the weather very exhausting. Moreover sometimes the rain falls with such an avalanche that it drowns the low lying area and people have to undergo great hardships so this weather is a mixed blessing. 2.4.4 Warm and dry: Warm and dry weather remains in the months of October and November. Since the monsoon stops at the end of September, the weather again becomes dry again but the temperature is considerably less hot this time. The dry continental air remains in the region. The temperature is moderate to warm during days whereas the weather is cooler in nights. The average high temperature is nearly 85 F (29  °C) and at night due to dry air temperatures it can decrease to 53 F (12  °C) especially at the end of October or early November. There is no rain in this season and this season is the driest season as compared to other seasons. This extreme dryness creates a lot of dust and haziness which results in pollution in the environment. 2.4.5 Cool and dry: The most pleasant months of all are December January February in Lahore. This is the most perfect weather of Lahore. The peak high temperature is nearly 68 F (20  °C) and the peak low temperature is nearly 41 F (6  °C). The climate remains cool, refreshing and sunny. However sometimes, a rain bearing system known as western disturbance which has its source in Mediterranean Sea affects the Lahore region and causes rain. But the rain is not so heavy neither it remains for a long duration. So the weather most of the times remains sunny, dry and refreshing. In fact, the climate of Lahore is hot and dry for the maximum period of the year with a short winter period with very refreshing weather. 2.5 Climatic indicators of Lahore: The table below displays average monthly climate indicators in Lahore which is based on 8 years of historical weather readings. Temperature in: Fahrenheit Table 2.2 average monthly climate indicators in Lahore 2.6 Hot dry climate: The hot dry equatorial land lying between the two mean annual isotherms of 68 °F (20 °C) has regions where the temperature during the summer season may reach 43.3 °C or may exceed and the vapor pressure is below 25millibars. 2.6.1 Elements of hot dry climate: 1 Seasonal variation 2 Air temperature 3 Humidity 4 Precipitation 5 Wind 6 Sky conditions and solar radiation 7 Dust storm 2.6.1.1 Seasonal variation: In these regions there are two major seasons; hot season winter Fig 3.2 Monthly averages of the minimum and maximum daily temperatures.  °C/ °F 2.6.1.2 Air temperature: The main features of the climate are temperature remains high during the day 80-130 °F (26.67-54.44 °C) in the summer months along with strong sunlight reflecting pitilessly from light dry and parched earth. There is however a big difference between summer and winter temperatures due to the varying altitude of sun. During winter the day temperature is usually as high as 90 °F (32.22 °C) but the temperature is quite low at nights ,whereas during summer the temperature goes down to 50 °F(10 °C) compared with 70F (21.11C) at night. 2.6.1.3 Humidity: Humidity remains low, Relative humidity varies with the air temperature. It can go below 20% in evening to over 40% at night. V.P fairly steady changing with location and season from about 500-1500 N/m2 2.6.1.4 Precipitation: The amount of rainfall or precipitation is generally noted as the average mm/day or mm/month which provides a beneficial indication regarding seasonal changes. Usually, average maximum rainfall in 24 hours or the average number of days in which a certain amount (in cm.) of rainfall happened is also given. This data is beneficial as an indicator of the rain intensity, which will affect the design of windows, roofs and sewerage etc. July and August are the months in which most rainfall occur, whereas June and September also have some rainy days. For the rest of the year, hardly any rain fall occurs in Lahore. Based on temperatures and precipitation data, during the hot and rainy season it is not advised to go between June and September. The rest of the year is dry with temperate daytime temperatures. Fig 3.3 Precipitation is any kind of water that falls from the sky as part of the weather. 2.6.1.5 Sky conditions and solar radiations: The skies are without clouds for the most of the period of the year where as frequent dust haze and storms occur mostly in the afternoon. Direct solar radiation is severe and is amplified by radiation reflected from the barren and light colored landscape. Fig 3.4 Monthly average numbers of hours of sunshine per day. 2.6.1.6 Wind: Winds are mostly native; they are generally low in the morning however increasing towards afternoon and are maximum in the afternoon, most commonly accompanied by whirlwinds of dust and sand. 2.6.1.7 Dust storms: Dust storms mostly occurs on summer afternoons which is the most intolerable part of the day , when routine winds blow at 15-220 miles per hour. These dust storms also occurs in other parts of the day i.e. in the evening and nights. 2.7 Climatic design of building: Climate has a great effect on building performance and electricity consumption of the building. The process of recognizing, deducing and controlling climatic effects at the building is perhaps the most difficult part of building design. The main objectives of climatic design of building should include: To minimize electricity cost of a building. To take benefit of maximum of natural energy instead of mechanical system and electricity. To provide comfortable and healthy environment for inhabitants. 2.8 Factors affecting climatic design: The native micro-climate and site factors influence the actual environmental conditions of the building. Some important factors related to site should be included while making the climatic analysis: Topography- elevation, slopes, hills and valleys, ground surface conditions. Vegetations height, mass, silhouette, texture, location, growth patterns. Built forms nearby buildings, surface conditions Important thermal design factors which should be considered include: solar heat gain, conduction heat flow and ventilation heat flow. The design variables in architectural terms which are important to be considered are: Shape surface-to-volume ratio; orientation; building height. Building fabric materials and construction; thermal insulation; surface qualities; shading and sun control. Fenestration the size, position and orientation of windows; window glass materials; external and internal shading devices Ventilation air-tightness; outdoor fresh air; cross ventilation and natural ventilation. 2.9 Thermal comfort: There is no approved standard for thermal comfort. This is not astonishing, as people can and do live in a wide range of climates from the equator to high latitudes. An Internationally- accepted definition of thermal comfort, used by ASHRAE, is that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment (ISO7330). Perceptions of this environment are influenced by air temperature, radiant temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, activity and clothing. Fig 3.5 achieving comfort in buildings 2.9.1 The comfort zone: The Comfort Zone means the range of temperature conditions of air movement, humidity and exposure to direct radiations, under which a normally clothed person feels comfortable. This will differ for Indoor conditions as compared to Outdoor conditions. This will also vary for different cultures and regions and varying climate conditions. As an Architects we use our buildings to not only create comfortable inside environments, but also aesthetical and beneficial spaces outside our buildings. 2.9.2 Thermal comfort index: A thermal comfort index serves the objective to evaluate the effect of environmental factor on the thermal feeling of inhabitants. Number of methods have been used in the previously to evaluate the thermal comfort level. However it is not possible to gratify every person in a building and a small number of persons are always discontented with the thermal environment due to individual variations. Several efforts have been made to produce a subjective and quantitative way of representing the thermal comfort. Thermal comfort condition in tropical summer conditions is given by Sharma and All at the Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, India. The ranges and optimum values are given in table. Thermal sensation Range  °C Optimum value  °C Slightly cool 19-25 22 Comfortable 25-30 27.5 Slightly warm 30-34 32 Table 3.3: temperature ranges in different thermal zones 2.9.3 Optimal settings for indoor temperature: Researchers have carried out much research on the most suitable comfort conditions, and have come up with general comfort results like effective warmth, the recent comfort standards set by ASHRAE (American society of heating, refrigerating and air condition engineers) for an individual performing light work are: Thermal comfort conditions: Air temperature 73-77 F Relative humidity below 60 % Mean radiant temp equal to air temperature Air velocity 10-45 ft/min

Indigenous People :: essays research papers

Indigenous People Indigenous people are those that are native to an area. Throughout the world, there are many groups or tribes of people that have been taken over by the Europeans in their early conquests throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, by immigrating groups of individuals, and by greedy corporate businesses trying to take their land. The people indigenous to Australia, Brazil and South America, and Hawaii are currently fighting for their rights as people: the rights to own land, to be free from prejudice, and to have their lands protected from society. Indigenous People of Brazil and South America The people indigenous to Brazil and South America are an extremely noteworthy group. The Brazilian population originally derives from four ethnic sources. From the beginning, the country has been a mixture of many "races" of people. Of these, are the native Indians, the colonizing Portuguese, the enslaved African blacks, and the various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia. Many of the indigenous tribes are quarreling with Brazil's officials and businesses. Rainforests are depleting at a rapid rate and, as they are a home to many indigenous tribes, is causing great turmoil. Although the Constitution of 1988 claims to recognize the indians' "original land rights to the lands they traditionally occupy" and promise that these lands will be "demarcated" and "protected", the Government Agency Funai is charged with the demarcation of of nearly fifty percent of the lands(PeaceNet). The report claims that, "in reality, most most indian lands whether demarcated or not are coveted for some form of development." This claim is substantiated by the fact that "mineral concessions have been made on fifty-eight percent of all demarcated indian lands, while thirteen percent are affected by hydroelectric projects," (PeaceNet) The link between global environmental change and the rights of indigenous populations results from the close relationship between indigenous people's cultural and economic situations and their environmental settings. Therefore, if the environment of the native Indians of Brazil continues to be changed and removed, the people born on these lands will be exterminated out of existence. Additionally, many societal views of the indigenous people is killing them. The Amnesty International report, as commented upon by PeaceNet cites one occasion in which a thirty-five year old Macuxi Indian by the name of Damiao M endes was found lying face down on a muddy riverbank, shot in the neck. Nearby lay his nineteen year-old nephew, murdered by the same means.

Women’s Right to be Educated

Before the Revolutionary War education was undergoing many changes. One of these changes was that many people, like the Puritans, felt that education was the key to help a person be successful in life. The idea was that if you were successful in life, then you would be spiritually successful also. The only problem with the Puritan's ideas was that it left out women. For a woman, in order to be successful, she had to raise her family in the way of the Church, and obey her husband. If she were to do this, she would achieve spiritual success. But the philosophy was mainly focused on the breadwinners of the family. A woman's role in society was not as noticeable to achieve merit. Their primary role was to stay at home and take care of the children. Also, they would help their husband in many of his daily activities. Women were being excluded from education, society, and power. The turning point for women though, was the Revolutionary War. Many women were left at home to take care of all of the responsibilities around the house or farm. With this new set of responsibilities, women began to think a little bit. They began to wonder why they hadn't been able to obtain any sort of social power. The fact remains that women had no power at this time because of historical reasons. Historically men had been the heads of the household. And with the strong religious beliefs of the time women couldn't change that. The Bible was a clear-cut answer to who should run the home. A woman's function from the perspective of the Bible was to be a mother and to be obedient to their husbands. Women didn't need education in order to be mothers and or to be obedient. Women had been educated before the turn of the Revolutionary War. But the education they were getting was not equal to that of the men or clergy. Really, the only education they were getting was the education that was taking place in the Church, separated from men. Before the War, women had a 40% literacy rate. This meant that 40% of the women's population could sign their name. They were only allowed to learn about the Bible and their religion. So historically women only needed enough education in order to stay at home and do domestic labor, and also to take care of their children. Secondly, men had been supporting the family for centuries. So all in all women had no power whatsoever. They had no voice in society, except for the raising of the children and the instillment of morality over their children. This would later be helpful as women started teaching. Before the War women had been dependent upon men. Now that the men were gone fighting, the women had no choice but to take over the responsibilities of supporting the family. This caused women to start thinking about their situation. They started to wonder why it was that they could do everything a man could do now, but they weren't being treated as though they were equal. They had no education, no power, no voice, and were now supporting the family. After the War was over some very interesting social groups popped up. One of these groups was called the Loyal Citizens. The Loyal Citizens group was a woman's group that was formed in order to uphold the â€Å"Republican Motherhood†. The basic idea here was that women should shape their sons in the image of the Republic. Also, the mothers should shape their daughters to become good Republican Mothers. This and other groups would be a powerful influence on the unification of women. For one of the first times we see women joining together in a common voice. Women are starting to understand that they aren't going to get anywhere unless they are unified. Meanwhile many schools were developing with the intention to educate women. The economy was booming which created many job openings for men. This left a void to be filled in the schools. For the private schools this meant that they weren't going to be able to stay open unless they were able to fill the open spots. So in order to fill the need, many women were educated in Proprietary schools. The education in these schools was not the same as the education in an all-male school. These schools were actually beauty and technical schools. Although, women were not receiving the same education as men, the education they were receiving would also have a large impact on the unification of women. Education at this time was responsible for unifying the country and shaping children as talked about in previous papers. With the education of women starting to be accepted, there was an explosion of girls schools called academies. This was around 1807-1808. The purpose of the academies was to teach grammar and etiquette. Some of them were actually finishing schools. Academies were a huge step for women's education. Women finally had a school that they could call their own. As women became educated, men started to wonder if women's education would interfere with their opportunities. The argument was made that education would not make women discontent with their roles in life, but instead would lead them to accept their place in society more easily. Here it is obvious to see that the women are having to justify their education to the men in order to continue. Women's education is still not accepted among society because the people in power, who were men, heavily influenced society. Hence, women still had little opportunity to do anything with this newfound education. In the early part of the 19th century, many of the common schools were undergoing dramatic changes. With such an onslaught of women becoming educated, there would soon be a large percentage of women who would need jobs. As the common schools began to increase in size, the demand for teachers rose. The women that had recently found education would soon meet the demand for teachers. One of the reasons for this was that women could be given less pay than men. And education was in great demand with the signing of the Northwest Ordinance. The majority of women's teaching was at the elementary school level. They would have approximately 40 to 100 kids all of whom were between the ages of 3 and 16. The only qualification that a woman needed to teach was that she had to have graduated from elementary school. With little education, women would start teaching with as little as 1 week of training in etiquette. In 1839 Horace Mann would come back from Europe and start to influence the way teachers were being educated. He developed the Normal School. It would teach the basic methods of teaching. He borrowed these methods from the Prussian education system. Later, in 1861 the Oswego Normal School would be a forerunner of all of the Normal Schools by placing even more emphasis on the learning of teaching methods. Normal Schools became an outlet for women. They could be educated to become teachers because society's views were changing. Finally in 1837, Oberlin College started accepting women and African Americans. Economically it had become cheaper to educate both the girls and boys. Society had become more egalitarian because of this push for women to educate themselves. But equality was far away. Society had changed. There was a need for women to come out of the home and into the workplace. But was this for the best. Women today still struggle to find equality in the workplace. Society, which was run by men, allowed women to come out of the home and to teach. So women did make a great stride in the right direction, but only because they were let to go there. Margaret Haley was an activist for women's power and a vehement supporter of teacher's unions. She noticed that women had no power and were still confined by the bounds that were placed upon them by men. Examples of this were that women would have to report to male administrators and were constantly scrutinized by men. She wanted to level the playing field by empowering women. She was also responsible for the American Federation of Teachers, which would later be known as the AFLCIO. With women being educated, the only thing left for them to do was to gain power and to someday give society the gentle touch of a woman. Women had learned the role of the Republican Mothers. There was no better way to teach a child than to have a woman who already understood their role as a mother. This role would be to shape the children they would teach into sons and daughters of America. Women were the perfect teachers. They had been teaching their own children for years how to be moral and responsible citizens. Through their struggle women eventually won their suffrage and would have a larger voice in the country. But even today there are still ripples from the pond that reach us. Women still struggle daily with trying to achieve total equality. Hopefully, they will win their fight!

Cultural Text Analysis Essay

Cultural texts can be described by Vanhoozer et al, as any work that is done by human beings that has a meaning because it is done intentionally and not as a fluke or by reflex. They include newspaper articles, books and other printed material, objects, images, spaces, films and music (Vanhoozer et al. , 2007, p. 248). There are a number of aspects of the English language (figures of speech) that are used in the writing of cultural texts to make the language use in the texts flowery, or even to explain some things in a deeper manner. They are also used to show the emotional intensity or to explicitly show the writer’s sense impressions by comparing one thing with another that is common or well known to the reader. Some examples of these are the use of metonyms, metaphors and connotations. A metonym can be defined as the usage of a word in a text to denote one thing while in actual fact; the word refers to a related thing. It can also be described as a situation where a word is replaced with another one that is closely associated with it (Casnig, 2009). An example of a metonym is the way people say plastic to mean credit cards or the way they say Washington, while what they actually mean to refer to is the United States Government. A metaphor on the other hand is defined as the comparing of two things without using words ‘like’ or ‘as’. They are a good way to put an image into the mind of the reader in regards to the message that they are trying to convey. Improper use however could mean that the message that the writer is trying to convey will not be understood properly (Wheeler English, 2010). An example when it comes to its use is when used in a sentence, when somebody says, â€Å"†¦her hair is snow white. † Here, the color of hair is being compared to the color of the snow, but there is no use of the words ‘like’ or ‘as’, and thus this makes the expression a metaphor. When it comes to connotations, these are ideas that are implied or suggested. They refer to the connections or associations that are connected to certain words or even the emotional suggestions that are related to the word in question (Word Reference. com, 2010). An example of this could be the way the word snake if used in reference to a person could be used to mean that the person is evil or dangerous. It could also mean that the person is crafty and not open and honest in their dealings with people. The cultural texts that I am going to use to show how metonyms, metaphors and connotations have been used are: a film on Eyes on the Prize Interviews. The specific interview in this case is the Rosa Parks interview that was done on November 14, 1985, and was produced by Blackside Inc. The interview was gathered as part of Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years (1954-1965). The second cultural text will be an article titled â€Å"Walking while Muslim† which is an article that was written in the year 2005 by Margaret Chon and Donna E. Arzt. Finally, I am also going to look at Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends which is a book written by Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Charles A. Anderson and Michael J. Sleasman. In the film on an interview with Rosa Parks, examples of metonyms that have been used are: when she is asked by the interviewer about how segregated their area was, she says, â€Å"In 1954, after the Supreme Court decision had been handed down to do away with uh, segregation in the public schools†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . Here, Supreme Court is a metonym for judges or juries, because in actual fact, they are the ones that make rulings in court. Another example is when Rosa Parks refers to the bus as being ‘packed’, which is a metonym for full, or filled to capacity. When it comes to connotations, an example of one is when the interviewer asks her, â€Å"How did you feel about sparking the boycott†¦? † The word spark here is used to mean that she was the one who agitated or stirred the people into action. Another connotation is when she refers to people as blacks and whites in her interview. This is a connotation of the African Americans and the American people (Washington University Film and Media Archive, 1985). In the article, â€Å"Walking while Muslim†, there are also some figures of speech that have been used in its content. Examples here are the use of connotations where it is said that the United Nations standing committee is toothless. What this means is that they have no power in terms of the functions that they are allowed to carry out. It is also shown when it is said that the international human rights enforcement systems are expected to have a better track record than the UN in the protection of human rights. The phrase track record is used here to refer to the record of their actual performance and accomplishments. This is because in the literal sense, track record means a documentation of speeds that an athlete runs or has been running over a period of time. Metaphors have also been used where the International Human Rights law is being likened to a guardian of religion. Here, the law and guardian have been compared without the use of ‘as’ or ‘like’. There is also an example of a connotation where they say that Jihad is one of the Islamic beliefs that are perceived as religious zealotry directed at non-Muslims. The word Jihad here is used as a connotation of the violent aggression of Muslims towards non-Muslims or secular people (Chon, M. and Arzt, D. , 2005). In the book, Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends, figures of speech have also been used in this context. Examples of some of these are: one of the characters in the book, Kevin Warwick—a leading researcher and professor of cybernetics at the University of Reading, says he is a cyborg. This is a metaphor because he is comparing himself to a being that is part human, part machine. In the book also, there is also a section where biotechnology is likened to a savior, and also where we are told that we should offer ourselves as living sacrifices. In this case, we are being directly compared to sacrifices (animals that are usually offered to God in order to appease him or thank him for something). There is also the use of metonyms where it says that â€Å"whatever label we choose to wear,† referring to the title that we choose to have because in actual fact, we cannot wear a label. Another metonym that I have discovered is when the author says that as Christians, they may fail to see the way the world looks at those who believe that the present is all that there is. Here, the ‘world’ does not refer to the physical globe, but to the people who are non-believers. It is a word that is commonly substituted for those who are not adherents of Christianity (Vanhoozer, K. et al, 2007). References Casnig, J. (2009). Metonymy. [Online]. Available at: http://knowgramming. com/metonymy. htm Accessed on: May 28 2010 Chon, M. and Arzt, D. (2005). Walking while Muslim. [Online]. Available at: http://www. law. syr. edu/Pdfs/0WWM_ChonArzt. pdf Accessed on: May 28 2010. Meginsson, D. (2007). Connotations and Denotations. [Online]. Available at: http://www. writingcentre. uottawa. ca/hypergrammar/conndeno. html Accessed on: May 28 2010 Vanhoozer, K. , Anderson, C. , and Sleasman, M. (2007). Everyday Theology: How to Read Cultural Texts and Interpret Trends. Michigan: Baker Publishing Group. Washington University Film and Media Archive. (1985). Interview with Rosa Parks. [Online]. Available at: http://digital. wustl. edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx? c=eop;cc=eop;rgn=main;view=text;idno=par0015. 0895. 080 Accessed on: May 28 2010. Word Reference. Com. (2010). Connotation. [Online]. Available at: http://www. wordreference. com/definition/connotation Accessed on: May 28 2010.